Africa

Constance Hilliard

and

Gloria T. Emeagwali

Introduction

The history of the sciences in Africa is as rich and diverse as that enormous continent itself. Those ancient societies such as Egypt, Nubia and Axum that had evolved large, complex state systems also supported a diversification of labor, which allowed for the growth of the theoretical sciences, in addition to the more practical technologies involved with the engineering of public works projects.

The applied sciences of agronomy, metallurgy and textile production tended to dominate the field of natural inquiry within other parts of Africa. So advanced was the culture of farming within the west of Africa that New World agriculutural growth was spawned by the use of slaves from these African societies who had alreadty made enormous strides in the field of agronomy.

The examination of the sciences among Africa's ancient states presents us moderns with special challenges. It was, in fact, after the third century b.c. that the process of cross-fertilization occurring among the ancient Egyptians, Nubians and Axumites of Africa and their Mediterranean neighbors in Greece and the Semitic peoples of the Near East ushered in one of the most dynamic eras of scientific discovery the world has yet known. The Egyptian port city named after its Macedonian conqueror, Alexander the Great, became the locus of this extraordinary scientific energy. The Library of Alexandria contained at its height well over a million books. While European scholars of an earlier era often categorized the remarkable scientific achievements emanating from Egypt during that period as merely Greek, it has now become apparent that what that epoch actually witnessed was the conjoining of Egypt, Nubia and Northeast Africa's three thousand years of accumulated scientific knowledge with that of their ancient Greek conquerors.

Our word "chemistry" derives from "al-kemi." The ancient Egyptians had applied this term meaning "the black land" to themselves. We should note, however, that some contemporary scholars interpret "kemit" to refer to the dark richness of the Egyptian soil, while others suggest that the term "black" refers in this instance to the skin pigmentation of these ancient peoples.

Hellenized Egyptians like Claudius Ptolemaeus, Heron and the female mathematician Hypatia helped lay the foundations for what later European scholars came to label the "Greek sciences." This may be in part because the educated Egyptians of that era wrote in Greek or a derivative language of ancient Egyptian called Coptic, which employed the Greek alphabet.

Resources

For a general introduction to the scientific and intellectual traditions of Africa, see:

§ Thomas Bass, Camping with the Prince and Other Tales of Science in Africa (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1990).

§ E. Nwanko, African Science: Myth or Reality? (Vantage Press, 1977).

§ Constance Hilliard, The Intellectual Traditions of Pre-Colonial Africa (McGraw Hill, 1997).

Other supplementary texts can shed light on contemporary problems and developments. Their general focus is on non-traditional science and technology and they therefore emphasize the variables, concepts and criteria that are associated with conventional and mainstream science.

§ Science in Africa: Achievements and Prospects (Washington, D.C.: AAAS, 1991).

§ Science in Africa: Women Leading from Strength to Strength (Washington D.C.: AAAS, 1993).

§ J.W. Forje, Science and Technology in Africa (London: Longman, 1989).

§ Science, Technology and Endogenous Development in Africa: Trends, Problems and Prospects (UNESCO, 1987).

Many books published in Africa are available from: The African Books Collective, The Jam Factory, 27 Park End St., Oxford OX1 1HU, England; Fax: 0865-793298.

Journals and Newsletters

§ Indigenous Knolwedge and Development Monitor (CIRAN/Nuffic, The Hague, The Netherlands)

§ African Technology Forum (MIT, Cambridge, MA)

§ AMUCHMA Newsletter (African Mathematical Union, Instituto Superior Pedagogico, Maputo, Mozambique)

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Day 1

Astronomy and Mathematics

Two of ancient Africa's most prominent areas of scientific investigation encompassed the fields of astronomy and mathematics. The solar calendar that we use today evolved from the Egyptian calendar of twelve months, calibrated according to the day on which the star Sirius rose on the horizon with the Sun. In the field of mathematics, the 17th-century b.c. Rhind papyrus shows us that the Egytpians were engaged in geometric problem solving considerably before the arrival of the Greeks.

The history of mathematics in other parts of Africa has been examined by the African Mathematical Union, based in Mozambique. They list about three hundred sources, including 20th-century works of anthropologists such as Delafosse (1928), Almeida (1947), Armstrong (1962) and Cheik Anta Diop. There are historically very practical explanations for the development of mathematics in the continent. A complex system of trade developed across the Sahara and with Asia, based on commodities such as gold and gold dust, kola nuts, leather items such as bags, and various types of textile. In Muslim regions the calculation of heritance and the distribution of Zakat necessitated mathematical accuracy. Some indigenous systems of calculation were decimal (based on ten), while others were vigesimal (based on twenty), such as the Yoruba system. Distinctions were made between prime numbers and multiples which contained other numbers. Various symbols evolved to represent various quantities, fractions, etc. Much of what we know about African systems of logic is manifested in games of strategy (such as mancala and ayo), games of alignment and puzzles. The major sources for studying mathematics are archaeological relics, such as the Ishango Bone of the Congo (with pattern of notches etched onto it), and oral tradition (in the form of riddles, proverbs and narratives).

Student Reading

§ Claudia Zaslavsky, Africa Counts: Number and Pattern in African Culture (Brooklyn: Lawrence Hill, 1979), Chaps. 1-3.

Extended Reading

§ Paulus Gerdes, Explorations in Ethnomathematics and Ethnoscience in Mozambique (Mozambique: Instituto Superior Pedagogico, 1994).

§ SIPATSI: Technology, Art and Geometry in Inhambane (Mozambique: Instituto Superior Pedagogico, 1994).

§ Richard Gillings, Mathematics in the Time and the Pharoahs (New York: Dover, 1982).

§ Gay Robins and Charles Shute, The Rhind Mathematical Papyrus: An Ancient Egyptian Text (New York: Dover, 1987).

§ Paulus Gerdes, "On Mathematics in the History of Sub-Saharan Africa." Historia Mathematica 21(1994): 345-76.

§ J.W. Forje, Science and Technology in Africa (London: Longman, 1989).

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Day 2

Medicine

Some common patterns and trends in medicine emerged across the continent. These included scientifically proven methods, as well as techniques and strategies which were culturally specific and psychologically significant. Among the common principles and procedures were hydrotherapy, heat therapy, spinal manipulation, quarantine, bone-setting and surgery. Incantations and other psychotherapeutic devices sometimes accompanied other techniques. The knowledge of specific medicinal plants was quite extensive in some knigdoms, empires and city states such as Axum, Pharaonic Egypt (in the Northeast) and Borgu (in Hausaland). The latter continues to be well known for orthopedics (bone-setting), as is the the case of Funtua in Northern Nigeria. Many of the traditional techniques are still utilized in some areas. Others have undergone change over time, have been revived in more recent periods, or have fallen into oblivion.

In the case of Northeast Africa there are numerous documents written in Geez, Amharic and hieroglyphics. These contain thousands of prescriptions for a wide range of disease. The Edwin Smith Papyrus is useful for the Pharaonic Egyptian era. Unfortunately, scholars have been unable to decipher the Nubian Meriotic script. Oral tradition in conjunction with texts written in Arabic constistute the main sources of information on West Africa. CICIBA of Gabon has produced several works (largely in French) on medicine in the Bantu-speaking regions of Central and Southern Africa.

Student Reading

§ F.P.A. Oyedipe, "Science in the Metaphysical Aspects of Yoruba Traditional Medicine," in African Systems of Science, Technology and Art, G. Thomas-Emeagwali (ed.) (London: Karnak, 1995), Chap. 5.

§ Bassey Andah, Nigeria's Indigenous Technology (Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan University Press, 1992), Chap. 3.

Extended Reading

§ Abayomi Sofowora, Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine in Africa (Ibadan, Nigeria: Spectrum/John Wiley, 1985).

§ Keto Mshigeni, Traditional Medicinal Plants (Das Es Salaam: Dar Es Sallam University, 1991).

§ Z.A. Ademuwagun, African Therapeutic Systems (Los Angelos: Crossroads Press, 1979).

§ Sandra Anderson and Frants Staugard, Traditional Midwives (Gaborone, Botswana: Ipelegeng Press, 1986).

§ Cyril P. Bryan (trans.), Ancient Egyptian Medicine: The Papyrus Ebers (Chicago: Ares Press, 1974).

§ Pascal James Imperato, African Folk Medicine: Practices and Beliefs of the Bambara and Other Peoples (Baltimore: York Press, 1977).

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Day 3

Microbiology and Food Processing

Indigenous fermented foods in Africa have usually been derived from cassava tubers, cereal legumes, oil seeds, palm tree sap, milk and various other local products. The scientific basis of indigenous food fermentation lies in the nature of the microorganisms involved in fermentation; the microbially induced changes of the base product; the nature of the enzymatic reactions which take place; and the specific nature of the end product in terms of nutritional and preservative qualities. A scientific process should be repeatable and open to scrutiny in such a way as to facilitate evaluation and perhaps further experimentation and research. Common to various parts of the continent are dehydrated granular food products that involve fermentation, frying and dejuicing, or products such as sorghum, maize or other cereals that may be fermented and made into alcoholic beverages. Food processors became aware of the significance of the various agencies by virtue of trial and error experimentation. Metallic objects have sometimes been used to hasten fermentation and in this case serve as trace elements, thus promoting the growth of the relevant microorganisms.

African civilization may be associated with specific methods of preparing and even consuming food items in ways that tend to reflect some measure of uniformity throughout the continent. Fast food items ranging from couscous to "qari," or cassava granules, various types of cereal-based flour, pulverized tubers of various kinds and a wide variety of vegetable-based soups all give African cuisine a distinct character. It has to be stressed that food preparation involves hypothesis formulation, the assumption of regularity in nature and a measure of logical and predictive capability on the part of the food processor or agent associated with food preparation.

This seems to be one of the underresearched issues in need of collaborative research between historians and microbiologists, nutritionists and sociologists. Some work in this area has been done by Richard Okagbue at the University of Zimbabwe. Sources of information for culinary trends include: excavated sites; motifs on sculpture, carvings and textile; oral history narratives, proverbs, popular literature, poetry and incantations; travel reports, such as that of Ibn Battuta; research in African/Carribean and African-American culinary patterns (for example, revealing pervasive use of gumbo, black-eyed peas and cowpeas); and indigenous writings in Arabic (for example, the Abuja Chronicles).

Student Reading

§ Richard Okagbue, "Microbiology and Traditional Methods of Food Processing," in The Historical Development of Science and Technology in Nigeria, G. Thomas-Emeagwali (ed.) (Edwin Mellen, 1992).

Extended Reading

§ Bassey Andah, Nigeria's Indigenous Technology (Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan University Press, 1992).

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Day 4

Metallurgy

Various types of metal products have been used over time by Africans, ranging from gold, tin, silver, bronze, brass and iron/steel. The Sudanic empires of West Africa emerged in the context of various commercial routes and activities involving the gold trade. In the North and East, Ethiopia and Sudan were the major suppliers of gold, with Egypt being a major importer. In Southern Africa, the kingdom of Monomotapa (Munhumutapa) reigned supreme as a major gold producer. In the various spheres of metal production specific techniques and scientific principles included: excavation and ore identification; separation of ore from non-ore bearing rock; smelting by the use of bellows and heated furnaces; and smithing and further refinement.

The use of multishaft and open-shaft systems faciliatated the circulation of air in intense heating processes, while the bellows principle produced strong currents of air in a chamber expanded to draw in or expel air through a valve. The various metal products served a wide range of purposes, including: armor (as in the case of some northern Nigerian city-states), jewelry (of gold, silver, iron, copper and brass), cooking utensils, cloth dyeing, sculpture and agricultural tools. The technical know-how and expertise of blacksmiths helped to enhance their status, although they were also often associated with supernatural and psychic powers, as well.

Student Reading

§ Fred Anozie, "Metal Technology in Pre-colonial Nigeria," in African Systems of Science, Technology and Art, Gloria Thomas-Emeagwali (ed.) (London: Karnak, 1993), Chap. 7.

§ Bala Achi, "Engineering in Pre-colonial Nigeria: The Construction of Fortifications," in African Systems of Science, Technology and Art, Gloria Thomas-Emeagwali (ed.) (London: Karnak, 1993), Chap. 9.

Extended Reading

§ Bassey Andah, Nigeria's Indigenous Technology (Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan University Press, 1992).

§ Peter R. Schmidt, Iron Technology in East Africa: Symbolism, Science and Archaeology (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1997).

Video

§ Tree of Iron -- shows steel making by the Bahaya of Tanzania

Visuals

§ I. VanSertima, Blacks in Science (Transaction Books), pp. 162-177.

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Day 5

Textile Manufacturing

Skill and expertise developed in various parts of the continent in terms of the making of yarn, weaving pit or pot dyeing and various activities associated with cloth-making. Over time evolved vertical and horizontal looms, vertical frames on which the beams were tied, supportive items for the cross-pieces or beaters and shedsticks, shuttles and other technical devices, and vegetable dyes of various colors. Women played a major role in this area of material culture, as was the case in food processing. In the case of textile production, product design and the invention of innovative techniques were largely derived from females. In more recent times, with the introduction of capital intensive technology, women have been pushed aside, in some cases where they once were dominant. Generally, the raw materials used in textile included camel hair, wool, flax, raffia palm and cotton. Flax was quite commonly used in Egypt, while cotton from indigenous species and raffia palm were common to various parts of West, Central and Southern Africa. Silk cloth was produced in Western and Central Nigeria, as well as other places, though less extensively. Some city-states and empires became famous for particular types of cloth and product design. Akwete, Ilorin and Okenne, for example, gave their names to the cloth produced in their regions. Textile technology has not been static, and over time interacted with the prevailing value systems to facilitate communication. Ideas, emotions, attitudes, beliefs and political philosophy were symbolized in specific ways by the use of a diverse range of motifs. Sotiba (Senegal), Kente (Ashanti), Adinkra (Ivory Coast), Sanyan (lace made in western Nigeria), Adire (starch resist) and Aso Olona (title cloths of the Ijebu) are some of the various names given to indigenous African cloth. Knowledge about textile is developed form travel reports (for example, Mungo Park in Ivory Coast, Cadamosta in Senegambia, Bailie in Nigeria, Herodotus in Egypt), missionary reports, autobiographies (such as Equiano of Nigeria), archaeological sites (such as Igbo-Ukwu, Nigeria or the 11th-century Bandiagara Cliffs in Mali) and oral tradition.

Student Reading

§ African Technology Forum, Vol. 7, No. 2 (1994).

Extended Reading

§ T. Picton and J. Mack, Afircan Textiles (London: British Museum, 1991).

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Day 6

Engineering and Building Technology

In various parts of ancient, medieval and contemporary Africa, building constructions of various dimensions, shapes and types emerged, reflecting various concepts, techniques, raw material preferences and decorative principles. Builders integrated the concepts of the arch, the dome, and columns and aisles in their construction. The underground vaults and passages, as well as the rock-hewn churches, of Axum are mathced in Nubia and Egypt with pyramids of various dimensions. In the Sahelian region adobe, or dried clay, is preferred in the context of moulded contours, at times integrated with overall moulded sculpture. Permanent scaffolding made of protruding planks characterized the Mqalian region. The principle of evaporative cooling was integated into building design. Mats were used as part of the decor and also to be saturated repeatedly, to cool the room.

Derelict ruins from walled cities, such as Kano, Zazzau and other city-states of Hausaland in the central Sudanic region of West Africa, complement structures such as the rock-hewn churches of Lalibela in Ethiopia or the Zimbabwe ruins. The structures of ancient Nubia, as well as those of Egypt, are parallel structures in the northeast. It is possible to see these ruins through various video productions now available. One may also find eyewitness accounts and sketches, such as those by Rene Caille and Henrich Barth.

Student Reading

§ Bassey Andah, Nigeria's Indigenous Technology, (Ibadan, Nigeria: Ibadan University Press, 1992).

Extended Reading

§ Graham Connah, African Civlisations (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992).

§ Webber Ndoro, “The Great Zimbabwe,” Scientific American 277 (Nov., 1997): 94-99

Video

§ Tubali: Hausa Architecture of Northern Nigeria (Ogbuide Corporation; Tel/Fax: 212-226-7854).

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Possible Student Research Topics

1. agronomic techniques and new crops brought by West African slaves to the New World

2. comparison of herbal medicines selected for treatment of illnesses in different African societies

3. traditional surgical procedures and techniques

4. engineering and architectural skills in the building of the Egyptian pyramids

5. elements of modern calendar derived from the Egyptian calendar

6. identification and naming of constellations in different societies

7. the controversy over "Greek science" as the basis of Hellenized Egyptians of Alexandria

8. techniques of counting and calculation in non-literate African societies

9. the spread of iron and iron metallurgy across Africa

10. the role of women in African textile production